Culinary Herbs & Spices of the World

The University of Chicago Press

History

Herbs and spices are as intriguing today as they were 400 years ago when the exploration of the world was driven by the fabulous wealth created by a lucrative international trade. The early silk and spice routes from east to west were monopolized by Arab traders and various countries and city states in the western Mediterranean region, who all shared in the rich bounty.

Spices first reached Constantinople and Alexandria, from where they were taken to Venice, Naples and Genoa in Italy, and from there to the rest of Europe. Spices were in high demand because of the poor quality of the food and the lack of a means to preserve meat, other than salt. During the medieval spice craze, shortages in supply resulted in a diversity of local spices that were used as substitutes or adulterants. The role of local, indigenous herbs and spices such as alecost and Melegueta pepper is now just a distant memory, as they were almost completely replaced by hops and black pepper respectively. Also long forgotten is the fact that the enormous spice wealth in northern Italy and the rich people who patronized architects, artists, authors and philosophers actually created the Renaissance. The overland monopolies were broken by the development of alternative sea routes, and colonial powers such as Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France and Britain all controlled and defended their access to spices and associated source areas at one time or another. Key moments were 12 October 1492, when the Spanish explorer Columbus reached the Bahamas and "discovered" aji (chilli peppers) and 20 May 1498, when the Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama stepped ashore at Calicut in India, thus establishing a sea route to the east around the Cape of Good Hope. This was the Age of Discovery, an exciting but brutal time during which the full extent of the earth and its rich bounty of culinary delights became much better known. The profound effects that the spice trade has had on determining where and how we live and eat today is no longer much thought about but it is true to say that spices were the driving force that changed and opened up the world.

The famous East Indies (including India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia) supplied important tropical spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, mace, nutmeg and especially pepper to satisfy the huge demand in Europe, where the lack of a tropical climate prevented local production. The same is true for chocolate, vanilla and allspice from the New World, including Mexico and Central America. Maize, potatoes and chilli peppers were distributed by Portuguese sailors from the New World to the Old World (Europe, Africa and Asia), where they quickly became important crop plants and consequently a non-indigenous part of many local food cultures. The East Indian spice monopoly was eventually broken by horticultural innovations, led by the French, who established plantations of pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon and other valuable spices on tropical islands such as French Guiana, French Polynesia, Réunion, Seychelles and Madagascar. The use of refrigeration and other means of food preservation further reduced the central role of spices in international trade.

Regions of origin and culinary traditions

A global view of the culinary traditions of the world, an almost impossible task, is presented below. In general, the same or similar types of dishes and ingredients are found in unrelated cultures, despite the incredible diversity of recipes and ingredients. Pungent spices for example, each with its own unique chemistry, are found everywhere, from horseradish and mustard in Europe to Melegueta pepper in Africa, black pepper in India and chilli pepper in the New World. One can trace the ancient origins of many "modern" food items such as meatballs, pizza, shawarma, salad, stew and tapas, as well as condiments (fermented sauces and vegetables, pickles and relishes) and drinks (cider, mead, wine and spirits). The discussion focuses mainly on the relatively poorly known Asian cuisines, the original home of many well-known (and poorly known) spices, with only brief mention of the main features of the more familiar Western traditions.

Africa

Indigenous herbs and spices such as ajowan, buchu, coffee, geisho, Guinea pepper, Indian borage, karkade, korarima, koseret, Melegueta pepper and tamarind are widely used in the many cooking traditions in Africa but, as in many other parts of the world, chilli peppers and other exotic spices have become popular or even dominant. Moroccan, Ethiopian and South African (Cape) cuisines are becoming more widely known and it is likely that others will follow. In North Africa, Roman, Turkish, French and Italian conquerors all contributed to the local cooking traditions. Harissa is a famous chilli-based purée (tabal) used for spicing mutton and semolina dishes, as well as highly aromatic soups (harira in Morocco, brudu in Tunisia and chorba in Algeria). Specialities include couscous with tajine or kefta followed by pastries and sweetmeats made from puff pastry, almonds, dates and honey. The extreme diversity in West African cooking ranges from bland-tasting fufu to fiery meat dishes (ragout and canari), spiced with chilli peppers (pili-pili) or Melegueta pepper, atokiko (mango stones), Guinea pepper, tamarind, soumbala (dried fruit rind), tô (millet paste) and lalo (powdered baobab leaves). Palm oil, peanuts and coconut are typical ingredients. West African traditions contributed to the Creole cookery of the West Indies. Ethiopian cuisine is the best known in East Africa. It is characterized by injera (teff bread) and various spicy dishes (e.g. shiro) in which berbere, a hot spice mixture, plays an important role. Chilli pepper has replaced black pepper but indigenous spices such as ajowan and korarima (Ethiopian cardamom) are essential ingredients. Also typical is koseret, a herb used with kifto (beef tartare). The national dish of Eritrea is zegeni (mutton with chilli pepper paste and vegetables). In southern Africa, the cooking tradition of the original San people was largely replaced by ancient and more recent immigrants, mainly Khoi, Bantu, Indian and European. Cape cookery, based on Dutch and Malay (Indonesian) traditions, is especially well known. Coriander, black pepper, nutmeg and blatjang (atjar) are essential components, but dishes are rarely very hot (except for chilli-based Indian curries). Specialities include braaivleis (barbeque), bobotie (spicy mince meat), sosaties (skewered meat) and potjiekos (slow-cooked stew in a three-legged cast iron pot), served with samp and beans, yellow rice (coloured with turmeric) or pap (white maize porridge).

North and Central Europe

There are surprisingly few spices indigenous to this region and exotic products now dominate. Notable exceptions are horseradish, the traditional pungent ingredient accompanying meat dishes, the widely used caraway fruits and juniper berries and the less well-known blue fenugreek of Georgian cookery. Culinary herbs are more diverse, and include absinth, angelica, caraway leaves, chives, garden mint, peppermint and celery, as well as a large number of species from southern Europe and the western Mediterranean that were introduced by the Romans and distributed through monastery gardens. Scandinavians use horseradish and dill with their dishes, which are based mainly on fish, pork, mutton, smoked reindeer, potatoes, beetroot, cucumber, fruit and berries, cream, cheese and butter. Spices such as cumin and cardamom feature prominently. The Russian cuisine reflects a diversity of cultures, with Ukrainian cereals, Armenian wine, Caucasian fruits and Georgian tea, enriched with dill, galangal and other herbs and spices. The British Empire left its mark on many parts of the world, not only its language but also culinary traditions such as the famous English breakfast, curry powders inspired by India and commercial sauces such as English mustard, Worcestershire sauce, brown and mint sauces as well as piccalilli (vegetable pickle) and relishes.

The Netherlands is the country of cheese, herrings, mussels, pancakes, hutspot (vegetable stew) and snert (pea soup) but the impact of the spice trade can be seen in the popularity of spices and dishes of Indonesian origin. Confectionery, sweets (e.g. drop) and liqueurs flavoured with anise, juniper, mint and other spices are particularly popular. German culinary delights are many and varied, but the most delicious are basic items such as bread, pork sausages, potato dishes, cabbage dishes (e.g. sauerkraut) and white asparagus, enjoyed with generous amounts of excellent beer, cider, wine, herbal tea (e.g. German chamomile) or bitter liqueur. Beer-brewing calls for enormous quantities of hops. In Austria, pepper, sage and juniper berries are commonly used to prepare game. Switzerland is best known for delicious items such as cheese fondue, rösti and chocolate. In Polish cuisine, mushrooms and traditional sausages are prominent, often spiced with pepper, fresh garlic and caraway seeds. Hungary is best known for its sweet (mild) paprika, used in Hungarian stew (goulash).

South Europe

The Mediterranean region is arguably the most diverse and exciting hotspot of culinary diversity, with herbs and spices that date back to Greek and Roman times. These include indigenous spices (e.g. aniseed, capers, carob, coriander, cumin, fennel, liquorice, mustard, saffron, sumac) and herbs (e.g. celery, chervil, fennel, hyssop, lavender, marjoram, myrtle, oregano, parsley, rocket, rosemary, sage, savory and thyme). Portugal has a distinctive cuisine characterized by the liberal use of fresh herbs and spices together with cabbage, rice, potato, sardines and salt cod (bacalhau). Spanish cookery has become better known in recent years through the popularity of tapas – savoury or spicy dishes presented as small open sandwiches, often with dry ham (e.g. serrano), sweet red peppers, black olives, stuffed peppers and various seafood items. Famous Spanish dishes include paella, liberally spiced with saffron. The use of chocolate and chilli peppers in cooking dates back to colonial times. Typical Spanish drinks include sangria (red wine punch) and horchata de chufa, an almond-flavoured cold drink made from crushed tiger nuts (chufa). French cuisine is so overwhelmingly and fascinatingly complicated that it is impossible to summarize it in a few words. Sauces have been developed to a fine art. Larousse (who proclaims Paris as the Mecca of gastronomy) quotes Curnonsky: "Sauces comprise the honour and glory of French cookery." Herbs and spices are skilfully blended and often used in fixed combinations (e.g. fines herbes and quatre épices). Pepper and cloves are typical ingredients in marinades, cinnamon and nutmeg in wine sauces, saffron in bouillabaisse, aniseed and cumin in confectionery, and coriander and juniper in meat dishes. Desserts often include chocolate, vanilla, cream and processed fruits. Provençal cooking (the culinary tradition of Provence) is characterized by a predominance of olive oil, tomato and garlic, with herbes de Provence (thyme, rosemary, bay, basil, savory, and nowadays also lavender). Italian food has become part of the global village, as seen in the popularity of pizza, pasta and risotto, together with salami and Parma ham, Parmesan and Gorgonzola, not to mention Italian ice cream. Pasta and rice dishes are particularly interesting and varied. Garlic, tomatoes, mozzarella cheese, truffles and saffron often feature prominently. Popular herbs include basil, thyme, sage, oregano, rosemary and parsley. Pesto is a famous Genoese sauce made with pounded fresh basil, parsley and marjoram. Greek cuisine shows many regional variations but common features include the use of fish and mutton with Mediterranean vegetables and the liberal use of herbs, lemon juice and olive oil. An Eastern influence is noticeable in the eating of meze or small appetizers, enjoyed with ouzo. Fish is often prepared with herbs such as fennel, anise or coriander (cilantro). Feta is the best-known of the many Greek cheeses which, together with lettuce, onions, herbs and ripe olives, make a Greek salad. Turkish cuisine was inspired by both European and Eastern traditions and has influenced the cooking traditions of many countries in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as Greece and Russia. Turkish specialities include pilaf rice, lamb kebab, meze, stuffed aubergines, dried figs, coffee and patisserie (e.g. halva, baklava and Turkish delight), sometimes flavoured with rose water or orange-flower water.

Middle East

Many of the best-known spices and herbs had their origins in the Middle East, which is often referred to as the Cradle of Agriculture and the Cradle of Civilization. There is indeed a golden thread of cultural continuity that links modern dishes such as Italian pizza, French ragout and Spanish tapas to ancient Mesopotamian dishes such as Babylonian flatbread, Persian khoresh and meze, respectively. Middle Eastern cuisines are based on local ingredients such as olives, chickpeas, dates, honey, dried limes, pitas, pomegranate, saffron, sesame seeds, sumac, parsley, mint, thyme and za'atar, However, it has been influenced by African okra, Mongolian dumplings, New World tomatoes, as well as Indian and East Indian spices (black pepper, cloves, cumin, garlic, turmeric).

Mesopotamian and Iraqi cuisine has a long history dating back 10 000 years with influences from neighbouring countries such as Iran, Syria and Turkey. Meals are started with appetizers and salads, known as mezza. It is the region of origin of kebabs (grilled meat, marinated in garlic, lemon and spices), falafel (fried chickpea patties served in a pita with salad and spicy sauces or pickles) and stuffed vegetable dishes such as dolma and mahshi. Other typical dishes include gauss (a wrap of grilled meat similar to döner kebab), and various lamb and rice dishes. Tahini is a popular paste made from hulled and roasted sesame seeds. The culinary traditions of Persia are equally diverse and ancient. Iranian stew (khoresh or khoresht) comes in many different variations but is often made with lamb and liberal amounts of saffron and other spices. Vegetarian koreshts are not uncommon and may comprise almost entirely of herbs, such as khoresht-e gormeh sabzi. A plate of fresh herbs, called sabzi khordan (made with ingredients such as basil, cilantro, cress, fennel, fenugreek, peppermint, radishes, za'atar, savory, tarragon and Welsh onion) is an essential accompaniment to lunch and dinner. Levantine cuisine represents the culinary traditions of the Levant, which includes modern-day Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, parts of southern Turkey and northern Iraq. Aleppo was the main cultural and commercial centre during the days of the spice trade. Essential components of Syrian cooking include baharat or Aleppo seven-spice mixture, roasted red pepper paste and pomegranate molasses. Mezzas often include baba ghanoush (a dip or paste made from aubergines and spices with a smoky flavour) and hummus (chickpea and sesame paste). Syrian muhammara is a spicy red bell pepper and walnut dip made with pomegranate molasses. Tabbouleh usually accompanies the meze. It is a type of salad with finely chopped parsley, mint, baby lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, onion and garlic, mixed with bulgur (wheat groats) or couscous and seasoned with olive oil, lemon juice and salt. The shawarma, now an international fast food, is another Levantine invention, as are kibbeh, meatballs made from mince meat, chopped onions and bulgur. Israeli dishes today often include chilli-based hot sauces introduced by immigrant Jews, such as skhug from the Yemen, harissa from Tunisia and filfel chuma from Libya. Amba is a mango pickle from Iraqi and Indian origin. These sauces may be blended with hummus and tahini and served with appetizers, stews, grilled meats, egg dishes, sandwiches and falafels.